An Analysis of Statutory Understanding - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1816 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Did you like this example? ABSTRACT Statutory understanding is the methodology by which courts translate and apply enactment. Some measure of translation is frequently vital when a case includes a statute. Some of the time the expressions of a statute have a plain and straight forward meaning. But in many case, there is some vagueness in the expressions of the statute that must be determined by the judge. To discover the significance of statutes, judge use different apparatus and strategies for statutory elucidation, including universal standards of statutory translation, administrative history and reason. Within the jurisdiction of the same law, the judiciary may apply rules of statutory rules of administrative agencies. INTRODUCTION Interpretation of Legislation The principles applied by English judges in the interpretation of English legislation have been applied by Malaysian judges in interpreting local legislation. It must not be forgotten, however, that when local legislatio n is being considered, it is local legislation and that English decisions on similar words in English statutes are not necessarily in point. Thus, in Re A TaxpayerSpenser Wilkinson J said: the various portions of the English income tax law have to be construed in the light of the particular methods of assessment in the United Kingdom; so that even where the sections of our Ordinance are couched in wording similar to that of certain parts of the English income tax law it is by no means certain that those words will have the same meaning in the context of the local income tax law as they have in the context of the English income tax law. Literal request of English rules might guide to restricted variation. For example, the English rule that a statute is not to be construed (in the absence of express words or necessary implication) as prejudicing the Crown might have given rise to the doubt in relation to the Malay States. Clearly the United Kingdom government, and those of Singapor e, Penang, and Malacca were protected. But what of the government of the Malay States and of the Federation of Malaya (in relation to Penang and Malacca as well the other states)? They were not part of the Crown. Was the English rule to be taken as applying to the Crown only, or to its equivalents as well? The literal and restrictive application was adopted by Wilson J in Plantersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Loans Board v S. Mangalam; where he said: The government of the Federation of Malaya is bound by the provisions of any general Enactment of law effective in the Federation unless expressly exempted. The different approaches used by court in England which has been adopted by the courts in Malaysia can be summarized under four main headings. The Literal Approach This approach assumes that the meaning and intention of the legislature have been expressed effectively by the actual words used in the act or enactment to be interpreted and the court needs to do no more than to give effec t those words. In an English case, the Sussex Peerage Casethe question before the Committee of Privileges was whether the Royal Marriage Act, 1772 extended to marriages celebrated outside England, Tindal CJ said: The only rule for the production of Acts of Parliament is that they should be interpreted in accordance with the will of Parliament which passed the Act. If the words of the statute are in themselves precise and clear, there is no more to explain the words in their natural and ordinary sense. The words themselves do, in such case, best announce the purpose of the law giver. In many cases, this approach enables the questions presented to the court to be answered quite confidently and no difficulties arise. It must be remembered however, that the literal meaning of the words almost always depends to some extent on their context and that the context of the words in a statute is the whole statute in which they are found. In commissioner of Stamps, Straits Settlements v Oei Tjong Swan Orsthe respondents were executors of Oei Tjong Swan, who died in Singapore in 1924. The deceased was resident and domiciled in the Straits Settlements, and his will was proved there.The estate of the deceased included, apart from moveable and immoveable property in Singapore, also moveable property situated outside Singapore. The issue was whether estate duty was also payable on the deceasedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s moveable property outside Singapore. Section 68 of the Stamps Ordinance provided that: In the case of every person dying after the first day of February 1908, shall, in cases specified in article 1 of Table A, levied and paid on the principal value is determined as here in after provided the property is passed on the death of the duty pass rates of stamp referred to in the article. Then section 2 of the Ordinance provided that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"propertyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ includes moveable and immoveable property. In case, the Privy Council held that the lan guage of section 68(1) plainly covered the moveable property situated abroad as the section said à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"all propertyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The Privy Council made a classic remark which runs as follows: The answer to the question (regarding the construction of section 68(1) of the Ordinance) must be found from an examination of the Ordinance itself, for the best and safest guide to the intention of all legislation is afforded by what the legislature has itself said. The Mischief Rule When it is not clear whether an act is included in what is forbidden by a particular piece of legislation, the judges can apply the mischief rule. Where there is ambiguity in the law, this rule allows the court to go behind the actual words of the statute to consider the problem that the statute was supposed to correct. The court will look at the law before the law was passed. After that, look at the overall intent of law as discovered from reading the whole and ask, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Any mis chief to it that the law is intended to correct?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“What social purpose?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  To go beyond the text of the statute to determine the function of the act, damage or purposes are vastly different approach to the golden rule and literal approach in looking at this problem. Elliot v Grey (1960) The defendantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s car was parked on the road. It was jacked up and has the battery removed. He was charged with offenses under the Road Traffic Act 1930 using an uninsured vehicle on the road. Defendant argues he did not à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"useà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ the car on the road with clear he cannot drive. Held: The court applied the mischief rule and decided that the car used on the road as it represents danger and therefore the insurance will be required in the event of an incident. The statute is intended to ensure the compensation when injured by hazards created by others. In deciding the meaning of a phrase in the statute, the court can also be helped by maxims that are not a rule but an aid to construction. Two of the maxims that used are noscitur a social known as an associate. This is used where the words are vague or unclear in the particular word. Its meaning is limited to the class or kind of thing as certain words in common. Next, ejusdem generic means that the same kind, class or nature. Under this rule, a wide range of general words are restricted to the same class as a more specific word that precedes it. The Golden Rule The golden rule is in fact analteration of the literal rule; used in order to avoid an absurdity or repugnancy. As Parke B said in the English case of Becke v Smith: It is very useful rule in the construction of a law to comply with the ordinary meaning of the words used and the grammatical construction, unless that is contrary to the intent of the legislature, to be collected from the statute itself, or leads to any manifest absurdity or repugnance increased, in where the language can be changed or modified to avoid inconvenience, but nothing more. It has also been said that the golden rule may be used in two ways; the narrow and broader ways. In a narrow application, rule stipulates that if the word is not clear, the court must adopt the interpretation that avoids absurd results. In its broader application, the golden rule is sometimes used in preferences to the literal rule where the words used can have only one literal meaning. This is especially so where considerations of public policy intervene to discourage the obnoxious interpretation. The rule, however, has mostly been used in a narrow way, and in this application, the golden rule can be used where there is a sensible alternative interpretation. The best case to illustrate the application of this rule is the case of Re An Advocate. In this case, respondent is an advocate in the roll of advocates for Sarawak. In November 1962, he visited Kuching in the course of practice, and as a favou r to his friend, who imported womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s clothing arranged his advertisement and representative. He also set the account and customs formalities attended in his own name and made use of in his hotel room to facilitate business. Any advocate can be suspended from practice in Sarawak, or his name may be struck off the roll of advocates of the order of a judge for any of the following reasons: if he does any act which if committed in England, would render him liable to be removed from the register of the court, or suspended from practise, if a lawyer in England. In conclusion, this report describes the facts and reality of law cases nowadays. As in this report is the interpretation and extrinsic act,the principles applied by English judges in the interpretation of English legislation have been applied by Malaysian judges in interpreting local legislationthe literal approach,the meaning and intention of the legislature have been expressed effectively by the actual wo rds used in the act or enactment to be interpreted and the court needs to do no more than to give effect those words. The golden rule,rule is in fact a modification of the literal rule; used in order to avoid an absurdity or repugnancy and the Mischief rule,even when read in the light of the whole statute, that the words bear a plain meaning. Sometimes, the words or phrases are vague. Sometimes in their application to particular circumstances, words or phrases though not perhaps strictly ambiguous in themselves are vague or uncertain. All these acts were discussed in the report above. REFERENCE Books Ahmad I. and Ahilemah J. (1995) The Malaysian Legal System: Interpretation of Legislation. 2 edn, Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur Website Statutory Interpretation (2008) Interpretation Available at https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/Statutory-interpretation.php (Accessed: 5 April 2014) Case Examples of the Golden Rule, 2013, retrieved on 2 April 2014, from https://golden-rule- law.blogspot.com/ Useful Website Scholarly publications: https://www.scholar.google.com A good search engine for educational purpose: https://www.intute.ac.uk Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "An Analysis of Statutory Understanding" essay for you Create order

The Influence of Ancient Greek Mythology on Modern Society...

Ancient Greek society fell over 2000 years ago but despite this, its mythology still continues to influence our western society. References to Greek mythology can be found all through time and in our western culture. The influence of Greek mythology can be found in our science, arts and literature and our language. When Ancient Greece fell to the Roman Empire, Rome adapted its mythologies which still influence us today as they have through history. That is not to say that Greek mythology wasn’t influenced itself – Greek mythology has links with the bible and the early Mycenaean’s. It has also been recognised as one of the earliest forms of paganism. References to Greek mythology can be found all through time and in our Western culture.†¦show more content†¦They were named for ******, Poseidon and Hades the king of the underworld. Asides from the planets, many of the moons orbiting the planets, especially Jupiter (Zeus) have been named according to Greek mythology. Pluto’s moon Charon was named after the boat keeper of the underworld, continuing the link between ancient Greek mythology and western society. The influence of Greek mythology does not stop here, it continues into the stars and galaxies – many of which are named after characters in Greek mythology and this is how Greek mythology has continually influenced western society over time. However, Greek mythologies role in western society is not limited to our science, as it has also played a huge part in developing the English language and phrases that we use. There are two ways in which Greek mythology has affected the English language and that is in words that reference Greek mythology and through phrases that represent the actions of characters in Greek mythology. Words such as an aphrodisiac - something that arouses or intensifies sexual desire, stems from the Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love. Also linked with Aphrodite is Venereal disease (another word for STI). This stems from the Roman term Venus which is the equivalent Aphrodite. Also, the drug morphine – its name comes from the Greek god of sleep, Morpheus. Its words such as these that create the link between Greek mythology and western society. These are clear examples of how GreekShow MoreRelatedAncient Greek Influences Essay886 Words   |  4 Pageslong considered Ancient Greece to be one of the most influential societies on modern day life. Ancient Greece has inspired the modern world in five main areas: theatre, government, philosophy, art, and architecture. Theatre flourished in Greece, particularly in Athens, between c. 550 BC and c. 220 BC. During its beginnings theatrical performances were part of Dionysia, a festival held in honour of the god Dionysus. 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Merck Company Free Essays

Introduction The healthcare industry is composed of many different players who have the same goal which is to ensure the well-being of people, particularly with regards to their health.   One such player in this industry is pharmaceutical companies.   This paper will be analyzing the products of Merck Pharmaceutical Company concentrating on the importance of research in the development of their products. We will write a custom essay sample on Merck Company or any similar topic only for you Order Now    It will also be presenting the company’s mission statement and how consistent the company is in relation to its mission statement.   Furthermore, it will analyze on whether the company’s patient and care-givers site is helpful to the company’s target audience or otherwise. Overview of Merck Company In order to analyze Merck Pharmaceutical Company comprehensively, an overview about the company and its mission statement must first be established. Merck Co. Inc. was established in 1891 with the concern on prioritizing the needs of patient that have been otherwise not met during this period.   The company primarily produces vaccines and medicines as well as delivering these to those who need them the most (â€Å"About Merck† 2008). Merck Co. Inc. is also a global research pharmaceutical company.   Its mission is â€Å"to provide society with superior products and services by developing innovations and solutions that improve the quality of life and satisfy customer needs, and to provide employees with meaningful work and advancement opportunities, and investors with a superior rate of return† (â€Å"Mission Statement† 2008).   The company is committed to the preservation and improvement of human life by maintaining high standards in its ethics, particularly in research in order to attain their mission (â€Å"Mission Statement† 2008). Products of Merck Company Because of their continuous research, the company has been able to release new products for the betterment of today’s society.   The most recent product of the company that was licensed and approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States was Gardasil, a cervical cancer vaccination.   The company announced the release of the vaccine on March 19, 2008 (â€Å"Product News† 2008). Gardasil is a vaccine that was developed in order to prevent the development of cervical cancer, dysplastic lesions and genital warts among females from age nine to twenty-six.   Based on their research, they had discovered that these diseases were caused by HPV types 6, 11, 16 and 18 (â€Å"Product News† 2008). Importance of Research to Merck Research is extremely vital to the progress of Merck as a pharmaceutical company.   Through their constant and meticulous research, the company is able to create medicines that have become important in today’s society.   The company’s research resources include the acquisition of the most advance tools in the market, chemistry, genomics and computerized molecular modeling.   These resources allow the company to remain at the forefront of discovery in their industry (â€Å"Our Research† 2008). Because of the technology advancement and their meticulousness in hiring employees in their research and product development department, the company is able to create products that are able to satisfy the needs of their customers.   At the same time, the availability of the most up-to-date technology allows the company’s researchers to work in an environment for them to create meaningful and advancement opportunities. As a result, they are able to improve and preserve human life in today’s society as well as meeting the company’s mission statement and values (â€Å"Mission Statement† 2008). Patient and Caregivers’ Site Since the company produces vaccines and medicines, there is always the possibility that it may be inappropriately administered which would cause adverse side effects to the patient which would not just aggravate the medical condition of the patient, but may also cause the caregiver to lose his or her license to practice. In order to prevent this, the company had provided a patient and caregivers’ site in order to properly educate the consumers of the company’s products on side effects, dosage, manner of administration and situations when the product could not be used.   The website is extremely helpful for both patients and caregivers.   The main page presents the names of the products so that the patient or the caregiver is able to locate more information about the medicine or vaccine. The page that discusses the medicine or vaccine is presented in two forms: one is written in a simple and straight-to-the-point manner so that the average individual without any background in medicine would be able to understand information about the product comprehensively.   It is also presented in a more technical and scientific way which can be comprehended only by someone who has a background in medicine such as a caregiver (â€Å"Patient Caregiver U.S. Product Web sites† 2008). Conclusion For a company such as Merck Co. Inc., research is extremely vital in its operations since it is only through research that the company would be able to create products in order to meet their mission which is to provide superior vaccines and medicines in order to improve the quality of human life.   One such example of this is the release of Gardasil, a vaccine developed to prevent cervical cancer and other diseases among females from occurring.   For patients and caregivers who would need information with regards to their products, the company provided a website where information about a particular vaccine or medicine would be understood by both patients and caregivers. References Merck Co., Inc. (2008). About Merck. Retrieved on 08 April 2008, from http://www.merck.com/about/. Merck Co., Inc. (2008). Mission statement. Retrieved on 08 April 2008, from http://www.merck.com/about/mission.html. How to cite Merck Company, Essay examples

The Torah, Talmud and Kabbalah Essay Example For Students

The Torah, Talmud and Kabbalah Essay She is full of the Divine light, and thought her experiences in her life try to break her; her incredible love seems to flow out endlessly. Sometimes Hoda had so many feelings all going in her at the same time that she felt as though she would burst, and all those feelings that were churning around that way inside of her would come splattering out in all directions (113) She falls into prostitution almost without knowing it. Prostitution could be seen as a breaking of the spirit, but she does it to stay alive and to keep her family together; a family unit broken by the death of her mother. Hoda is the divine dichotomy. A princess and a whore, she is everything and nothing. Because of Hodas incomplete education, her idea of how babies are made is a little off, but only lends itself to the broken vessel theme. She rationalizes that men have to squirt in enough of their own pieces to create a whole baby, and by not sleeping with the same ones all the time she will not have a baby. Her fat hides her condition from even herself, and one night her vessel is broken almost entirely. The baby is described as a lump, as she believes it is the pieces of all the men she has slept with. She leaves it at the orphanage with a cryptic note. TAKE GOOD CARE. A PRINCE IN DISGUISE CAN MAKE A PIECE OF A PRINCE, TO SAVE THE JEWS. HES PAID FOR (219) piece of a prince could be construed as prince of peace, who would indeed be a savior of the Jews. The childs name given at the orphanage is David Ben Zion, King David. His unknown origins could be a form of Immaculate Conception. He too, like his mother and grandparents is a bit flawed, Hoda tied the umbilical cord in a funny way which gives him such a strange belly button he is nicknamed Pipick. Hoda does not see Pipick again until one day, many years later; he comes to her as a customer. Once she realizes who he is, she makes another decision which threatens to break her vessel. She must sleep with her son to save him. If she does not, she could reveal his origins and disgrace him. Hoda commits the greatest taboo in order to save her son. Hoda is finally saves in the end when she marries Lazar, alluding to the Lazarus of the bible who rises from the dead. By this time in her life, Hoda has an incredible need for love, and it is matched by this man who has crawled from the grave of his village to live again. The novel ends with man and woman untied, both flawed vessels themselves like Danile and Rahel. Crackpot is a novel of opposites, life and death, broken vessels being both full and spilling empty. In the final words of the novel, the prostitute Hoda finally sleeps with someone who isnt a john. She has a dream that is incredibly disjointed and obscure in its direct meaning, but that is the nature of the muddy waters in the brimming pot (427). The novel ends with a vessel reference, not broken, but brimming with life.

Relation of Gay Marriage to the Definition of Marriage

A legal union of a man and a woman is defined as marriage, and it is the only possible definition of marriage. Defense of marriage act is one of the perspectives that are compatible with the bumper sticker, which keeps away any possible form of marriage such as gay marriage. It aims at discriminating people’s feelings of ethnical and sexual minorities. With emerging socio-cultural trends, the argument that same sex marriage is impossible is no longer valid. It is already legal in some countries.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Relation of Gay Marriage to the Definition of Marriage specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The society should accept that marriage in the modern society is defined mostly in terms of cultural contexts due cultural diversity. New forms of social organizations have emerged and are accepted by members of society. The government policy makers should know that the society no longer define ma rriage in terms of legal frameworks. Feigen Brenda argues that marriage should be explained in terms of particular social contexts. Definition of Marriage Marriage is the pursuit, acquisition, retention of socio-sexual exclusivity meaning it is the submission of oneself to emotion, and physical attraction to another person on permanent basis Scholars such as Francis Nye argues that marriage is a socially and legally recognized unit consisting of two adults sharing residential space permanently, periodically or occasionally (Rollins 100). Marriage being an institution of society can be viewed as any form of behavior that have become regularized and patterned in society to such an extent that it is considered an automatic or mandatory stage through which each member must pass through. Others consider it as a union formed when members of society decide that there are certain goals and objectives that they need to achieve and can only achieve by coming together in a structured manner. T he unions are formed when two or a number of people consciously subscribe to some form of association that helps them to realize the productivity of co-existence. Others view marriage as a group of members living by specific rules and aim at pre-determined goals (Rollins 101). This paper tries to explain how gay marriage relates to the definition. Many societies have come to the reality of accepting that gay marriage is an option of marriage. Many states recognize it and have gone ahead to legalize it Pre-conditions for Defining Marriage Legitimacy The partners in marriage need to register their unions as marriage and children if any must be registered as births or adoption. Marriage does not necessarily mean that members must reproduce children themselves. Instead, they can find them using other means. It then follows that siring of children is not in itself marriage.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OF F Learn More The authorities should be aware of existence of marriage so that to solve the problems of inheritance in case of uncertainties such as divorce and death of a spouse. The society at which the members are part of must accept and recognize the union. The society focuses on thing like disparity, age and status. An individual of particular age is supposed to get married to a certain age bracket, preferable members of the same age group. Equally, an individual’s social status is critical in determining individual partner in marriage. Social statuses vary from one place to another. Most societies accept inter-class marriage while others are conservative meaning that someone only gets married to his/her class partners. The marriage partners must go through certain marriage rites such as informal education in some societies. Proximity Marriage is about sharing space and time both before and after marriage. Both share whatever belongs to one partner. Their propert y is registered as share holding to reduce conflicts. The married individuals should share responsibilities and must spend on each other. This means that there should be extensive consultation concerning management of family affairs and businesses if any. The couples should at all times try to think alike that is, identify the same things that they need in life. Proximity in general means that the married individuals should be near to each other in many ways both economically and socio-politically. They should not be seen to be having divergent views in ideology as adhered to in gay marriage. Affection/Commitment The couple should declare their love in public and to themselves including in privacy, it should be extended to children if any. They should constantly express themselves affectionately to each because it facilitates achievement of exclusivity that is gotten through visitation and references such as darling. The couple must declare permanent attachment to each other to an e xtent of altruism where by one of them is willing and ready to die for the other .The couple must be committed to each and involving themselves to each other’s affairs fully (Marcosson 6). Gay as a form of marriage contains commitment as part of its tenets. It is then clear that it does not have any difference with opposite sex marriage as claimed by many. Summary The type of marriage has been proved to be fulfilling the tenets of marriage largely. The proponents of gays have stood strong to defend the action by lobbying the society to accept them. They have come up with a number of organizations to support gay claiming that matters of love and marriage are of great concern to the society. The gay marriage activists argue that marriage is about feelings and emotions, which are not easily controlled by human efforts.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Relation of Gay Marriage to the Definition of Marriage specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/p age Learn More Therefore, gay should be accepted as part of marriage in a dynamic society. It is a right of an individual to express his or her heart as long as the actions do not interfere with the rights of other people. Gay marriage does not interfere with freedoms of other people in any way. It is matter of society understanding that it is a personal choice but not pressure from any individual or organization. In most of the developed world’s countries, gay marriage has become part of life. The society has finally given up allowing change (Wardle 29). Challenges of Gay Marriage Religion Most of the modern and other world’s religions have found it hard to accept that gay is not about loss of societal values and morals but about change in socio-cultural currents. They have stood out strongly to oppose the act and are lobbying their governments to illegalize gay marriage. They have formed strong community organizations to condemn the behavior. Islam cul ture does not allow any form of debate concerning gay marriage in their settings. Gay marriage is unpalatable in Islamic states and it amounts to punishment by death. The situation has led to stigmatization of individuals engaged in gay marriage to an extent of forming false perception that gays are sexual perverts and deviants. Gay marriage in some places are exercised secretly especially in third world countries, this means that it is exercised everywhere only that it is not public because of stigmatization (Volokh 40). The Media Print and broadcast media have given gay marriages much attention leading to doubts about its existence as another form of social life. It associates gay marriage with other societal problems such as spread of diseases, which is not true. Other factors contribute heavily to spread of killer diseases but do not receive much media attention such as substance abuse. The media plays a big role as far as stigmatization of gays is concerned. They expose the gay s to the society without carrying out proper investigations about the cause of gay marriage (Kendal 72). Conclusion The emergence gay marriage in society has raised various controversies, the major one being creating a new conflict between the old and the young. Change should be gradual but in the modern system, it seems to be radical leading to many complications including emergence of new type of marriage. For there to be justice and freedom of expression and choice, the government representing the wishes of everyone should move in with speed to solve the new conflict (Richardson 78). The society will claim to be democratic and liberal when everyone is allowed to practice whatever he/she feels is right to him/her without criticism. In other words, the society should accept reality and face it fully instead of resisting. Finally, it is the role of sociologists and other community developers to carry out awareness pertaining marriage in order for people to understand that it is as a result of feelings not curiosity as majority think.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Works Cited Feigen, Brenda. â€Å"Same-Sex Marriage: An Issue of Constitutional rights not Moral Opinions.† Harvard Women’s Law Journal, 34. 2004. Kendal, Thomas. â€Å"Beyond the Privacy Principle.† Columbia Law Review, 92. 1992: 1431. Marcosson, Samuel. â€Å"Harassment on the Basis of Sexual Orientation: A Claim of Sex Discrimination under Title VII.† Geo. Law Journal, 81.1 1992: 6-10. Richardson, Valerie. â€Å"Barr tops 9 others for Libertarian nod.† Washington Times, 2008 Rollins, Joe. â€Å"Same-Sex Unions and the Spectacles of Recognition.† Law and Society Review, 39. 2005: 457-469. Volokh, Eugene. â€Å"A Common- Law Model for Religious Exemptions.† UCLA L. Review, 46. 1999: 1465 Wardle, Lynn. â€Å"A Critical Analysis of Constitutional Claims for Same Sex Marriage.† B.Y.U.L. Rev. 1.5 1996. This essay on Relation of Gay Marriage to the Definition of Marriage was written and submitted by user Amalia I. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Hypnosis

, hypnosis is a relaxed condition where an individuals’ mind is focused and receptive to suggestion. The word hypnosis comes from the Greek meaning of sleep, hypnos, it is also called suggestive therapy, which is the one of the oldest therapeutic methods. The human mind has many layers. The first layer is our conscious mind which helps with the daily decision-making process. It is intelligent, realistic and logical, especially in situations where rational thinking is applied. However, it can only deal with a certain number of things at one time because it can be easily overloaded. The subconscious is a layer that works on ‘auto pilot’, reacting to the principle of avoiding pain, obtaining pleasure and managing survival, regardless of external circumstances. It is concerned with emotion, imagination and memories, as well as our nervous system that controls internal organs automatically. There are many different scales used to determine the depth of hypnosis. These stages are not always clear and not everyone achieves all of the signs. There are a number of factors that can determine the depth that an individual can reach. First, the methods used by the hypnotist to induce are important. In addition, the natural ability of the client, along with their emotional state and motivation, are key factors. Finally, there should be complete trust between the individual and the hypnotist. Studies show that as few as one in twenty people are capable of entering a deep state easily, but most can achieve the lighter states, where most therapy can be accomplished. There are several levels or phrases in a hypnotic state. First is the light phase, very little happens in this stage, relaxation is the main objective. The individual often believes they are not being hypnotized or that the... Free Essays on Hypnosis Free Essays on Hypnosis Hypnosis is a state of inner concentration and focused attention. It is defined as an altered state of awareness, consciousness and perception. In other words, hypnosis is a relaxed condition where an individuals’ mind is focused and receptive to suggestion. The word hypnosis comes from the Greek meaning of sleep, hypnos, it is also called suggestive therapy, which is the one of the oldest therapeutic methods. The human mind has many layers. The first layer is our conscious mind which helps with the daily decision-making process. It is intelligent, realistic and logical, especially in situations where rational thinking is applied. However, it can only deal with a certain number of things at one time because it can be easily overloaded. The subconscious is a layer that works on ‘auto pilot’, reacting to the principle of avoiding pain, obtaining pleasure and managing survival, regardless of external circumstances. It is concerned with emotion, imagination and memories, as well as our nervous system that controls internal organs automatically. There are many different scales used to determine the depth of hypnosis. These stages are not always clear and not everyone achieves all of the signs. There are a number of factors that can determine the depth that an individual can reach. First, the methods used by the hypnotist to induce are important. In addition, the natural ability of the client, along with their emotional state and motivation, are key factors. Finally, there should be complete trust between the individual and the hypnotist. Studies show that as few as one in twenty people are capable of entering a deep state easily, but most can achieve the lighter states, where most therapy can be accomplished. There are several levels or phrases in a hypnotic state. First is the light phase, very little happens in this stage, relaxation is the main objective. The individual often believes they are not being hypnotized or that the...

Driving while under the influenced Research Paper

Driving while under the influenced - Research Paper Example Alcohol is a depressant since it lowers the performance of the nervous structure within the body. The act illustrates that the usual brain task is deferred since the individual is not capable of functioning generally. Alcohol has an effect on an individual’s information process sing ability. The consumption of alcohol previous to driving to a great extent enhances the dangers of car crashes, vehicular deaths as well as highway injuries. The more the intake of alcohol, the higher the possibility of the individual being engaged in a misfortune incase he drives (Sherer, 231). There are many reports incidences of populaces who died in travel collides connecting to alcohol. In New York City, in the year 2006, about 17,600 populaces lost their lives in travel hurtle engrossing alcohol. Also in the same period more than 1.6 million drivers were taken into custody for over speeding while high of alcohol or substances. In America, in the year 2012, 10,322 populaces were murdered in alc ohol-impaired travelling collides, it represented almost one-third of every traffic connected deaths. The harshness of alcohol-stimulated dangers depends on the quantity of alcohol present in the bloodstream, which is supported on an individual’s blood alcohol content (BAC) proportion. Majority of the populaces start to experience the results of alcohol when their BAC varies between 0.03% & 0.059%. By this position, the individual feels relaxation, talkativeness and mild euphoria, but they endure from judgment, concentration, coordination, and impaired alertness (Sherer, 239). Once a person’s blood alcohol content gets to 0.03% & 0,059%, the mind’s capacity to hold chores needed for safe travel is interfered with. The mind’s capability to manage eye actions and process information as well does not function properly. This means that the driver under the influence of alcohol uses more time in

Practices as a social worker on values, beliefs and experiences Personal Statement

Practices as a social worker on values, beliefs and experiences - Personal Statement Example In this context, though there are scientific interventions like value education, the perception of these interventions would again depend on the experience through which a person has come through. Walters (2010) , in his article on ‘An Introduction to Use of Self in Field Placement’ has cited the case of a social work student who was able to produce remarkably superior quality field reports. The reason that the author cites for this is that the poorer socioeconomic situation of the student which helped him to draw experiences from himself and apply himself while preparing the reports. Further, Dewane (2006) has emphasised on the need for integrating knowledge, values and skills with life experiences for being an effective social worker. Thus personal experience of a social worker will add genuineness and authenticity to social work practice. A social worker will be able to connect oneself more to the social issue with added personal experience. In general, experiences will influence ones world view. However, a social worker must be able to analyse a social issue from different perspectives. It must also be ensured that personal experiences do not lead to views wh ich are

Negotiations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Negotiations - Essay Example The requirement to move the opponents from their preferred solution could motivate individuals involved to go against contemporary ethical standards; they could employ inappropriate influence tactics so as to gain compliance from the other. Guasco and Robinson put the ethical argument in context noting that â€Å"what is one negotiator’s appropriate tactic is another’s unethical trick† (2007, p. 135). Approaches to ethical reasoning In business negotiation, various standards have been used to evaluate tactics, as identified by Lewicki, Barry and Saunders (2007). The end result tactic would be applied where the negotiator chooses to adopt an action based on the expected results. Duty ethics would cause the negotiator to choose a course of action based on such person’s duty to uphold suitable rules and principles. The third standard referred to the fact social contract would cause one to choose a specific course of action based on the strategy, values and no rms of an organization or community they exist in. Finally, personality ethics would cause one to choose to follow a specific course of action based on personal convictions. ... Here, the negotiator aims at distorting the settlement point. For example, a buyer willing to spend up to $10,000 on machinery could indicate to the buyer the willingness not to spend more than $8,000. This tactic has been noted to be necessary in creating a rationale that would make the opponent make concessions. According to Lewicki, Barry and Saunders (2007), negotiators who make extreme demands and have the opponents give in achieve favorable settlements. In bluffing negotiation tactic, the negotiator would falsely state the intention to perform an act. These have been described by Lewicki, Barry and Saunders (2007) as false threats and acts. For example, a negotiator could threaten to undertake a specific course of action should the opponent fail to perform a specific task. But this would be said without any intention to live up to the stated consequences. Guasco and Robinson (2007) argue about the unethical form of bluffing such as the one where a seller lies to a buyer of a pr ospect who has bid a higher price for a car, yet in real sense no one else has participated in negotiations. Therefore, the scholars liken bluffing in negotiation to poker. With falsification, erroneous or incorrect information would be introduced as if it were true (Lewicki, Barry & Saunders, 2007). Some examples include erroneous financial information, false guarantees and warranties. Falsification could be printed or spoken and would be aimed at using erroneous information to distort actual facts, thus changing the position of the opponent. The fourth negotiation tactic, as identified by Lewicki, Barry and Saunders (2007), is known as deception. Here, the tactic would attempt to manipulate the logical and inferential processes of the opponent so as to cause incorrect deduction or

Models of Inclusion in Education

Models of Inclusion in Education Introduction This paper focuses upon inclusion as an international issue. It is structured in three basic topics. Firstly, there is a description of models of inclusion mainly implemented in the U.S.A. Then, there are presented the barriers for greater inclusiveness with some examples of schools from New Zealand, from the States and Northern Ireland. Finally, there are described some solutions, proposed by recent literature, aiming to overcome the barriers and achieve education for all. Main Body Defining Inclusion Searching through the literature, numerous authors describe the term inclusion via different definitions. This explains the various ways inclusion can be seen. A large amount of information has been provided through definitions for its purpose, its philosophy, its emergence as a rights issue as well as a social one. In this paper, inclusion will be examined as an educational issue and the terms inclusive school, inclusive system, inclusive education are used alternatively. As such an issue, it could be claimed that inclusion is about a philosophy of acceptance; it is about providing a framework within which all children- regardless of ability, gender, language, ethnic or cultural origin- can be valued equally, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities at school (Thomas, Walker and Webb, 1998 :15). Inclusive education stands for an educational system that includes a large diversity of pupils and which differentiates education for this diversity (Pijl, Meijer, Hegarty, 1997: 1). Inclusive education is an unabashed announcement, a public and political declaration and celebration of differenceIt requires continual proactive responsitiveness to foster an inclusive educational culture (Corbett and Slee, 2000: 134). Inclusive schools are defined as those that admit high proportions of pupils with SEN (Dyson et al.2004: 10). The definitions above are just a small sample of the different approaches to inclusion estimated as an educational aspec t. Models of inclusion Changing a school into a more inclusive one is not an easy case. It constitutes a whole reform in order to have a lasting meaning for everyone engaged. This reform has been presented through some models of inclusion, which do not appear as panacea. They do have both advantages and disadvantages but tend to lead to a more reconstructed education. We could categorize these models to the ones promoting part-inclusion and the ones promoting full-inclusion. I will describe below models from both categories, which have been implemented in schools in the U.S.A. According to Zigmond and Baker (1997), self-contained classes and resource rooms in regular schools constitute models of part-inclusion. The first one depicts mainly a tendency for integration that has to do with the placement of children with SEN. The perception that they are in need of a different curriculum from their peers restricts their participation only to lesser activities. The teacher of the regular class needs a professionals guidance but the model still seems to be ineffective due to the low expectations the teacher has from pupils with special educational needs. The second one detaches from the regular classroom the children who need support in order to receive it from a special education teacher, who will teach them on obtaining basic academic skills or also on acquiring learning strategies. The results are dual because on the one hand the students self-esteem tends to follow an upward trend but on the other hand (s)he not only misses the opportunity to attend what the rest of the class is being taught during his/her absence but also there is incompatibility between the methods followed in the two classrooms. Having as a target to incorporate both special education and the pupils to whom it refers in the mainstream school, the two authors above suggest two full inclusive models: the Collaborative Teaching Model (CTM) and the MELD one (Zigmond and Baker 1997). In the classroom where the CTM model takes place, there is collaborative spirit between the teacher of general and special education. Through their daily contact they decide who will teach what, they teach together and they both aid all the pupils. As a result, the teaching procedure becomes more productive due to the fact that each teacher is responsible for a smaller number of children. Apart from this, a classmates support is also available to the child with SEN through the study- buddy system. As far as the MELD model is concerned, it is a broad reform as it engages the whole school in the inclusion effort. It encourages all children with learning difficulties to attend the general school no matter their performance. The special education teacher has a peripatetic role but the time he will spend in a class depends on the number of children with learning difficulties. There are weekly co-planning meetings but the disadvantage of the model is that the special education teacher has so many duties that (s)he has no much time left to pay the essential attention to pupils who really strive to attend the mainstream school. That is why their parents have to pay for extra tutorials or to choose another school environment for their child. Montgomery (1996) describes six of the several full inclusive models that can be implemented in a classroom framework. The first one reconstructs the traditional tension according to which interdisciplinary support was given in a separate class. Now all this personnel is an integral part of the class but can still offer more individual assistance when needed. The second one is a collaboration of coexistence of a general education class with a special education one of the same age. When that happens, two or more teachers share their experience and skills, one around curriculum and the other around support and vice versa so co-teaching becomes a fruitful process. The third full inclusive model encourages liaison mainly among general education teachers. There can be in a class a variety of special education needs, so the teacher can receive help from the rest of the staff teaching the same grade. Moreover, there is a timetable designed by paraprofessionals, who itinerate is it mostly needed. So, the last ones do not need to be there in a continuous basis but instead cooperation among teachers and group teaching can be a really helpful combination. Consistency is the key in this group. That means that when children move to next grade, it is essential the same function to be adopted so as to assure that there will be an alignment in the teaching method. The fourth model refers to older children especially ones of secondary education. Compared to the rest of the children, pupils with SEN have the opportunity of making three choices instead of two. So, apart from core and elective modules they can also attend support centre. The aim of this model is equal support to be offered both during core and elective modules and not let a child restricted in the resource room with just some visits to the regular one. To continue with the fifth model, there is a student support centre in the school, the scientific team of which not only offers support on an individual basis but also collaborates with teachers of regular class. This model offers extended contact between special educators and children as support is not only provided in the centre but also in the class or on a group basis but the criteria for success for success is trust among personnel members as each child is not one professionals duty but a whole teams responsibility. The last model according to Montgomery (1996) refers to adolescents with special educational needs who will attend for four years courses in a campus with students without special needs. There are meetings offering advice and guidance to general educators while the special ones remain close to the child by providing support for developing skills to achieve better contact with peers and participation to extracurricular activities. The key to success is the heads assistance. Barriers that prevent schools from promoting greater inclusiveness By proclaiming that every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs and that education systems should be designed and educational programs implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs ( UNESCO,1994, p.p. viii) it is represented a tendency for promoting inclusion. Not only international declarations but also government documents and educational acts elucidate the multilevel importance of inclusive practices. To support this, emphasis is given on h3 educational, social and moral grounds (Tilstone, Florian and Rose 1998, p.2) of inclusion through the issue of equal opportunities and human rights one. The values of acceptance and limitation of discrimination of disabled people have given rise to the debate around their belonging in ordinary environments, and more specifically, for the case examined here, in an ordinary school. Despite the dialogue among governments, ministries of education, organizations, legislations, educators, (SENCOs), parents, specialists there still remains a significant gap between theory and practice. Prohibiting factors are social as well as practical aspects. When examining the barriers for promoting inclusion and more specifically within a social context, one should take into consideration the medical model and the individuals perceptions, which come as its consequences. In order to understand the impact of medical model on exclusionary discourses, it is of essential importance to think about the progress of medicine during the past century. The fact that a doctor has the ability and the privilege to diagnose, prescribe, cure and rehabilitate raises him in the sphere of authority. Vlachou (1997) states that the medical model is extremely dominant and it demonstrates its strength through labeling and its policy around disability. The medical ideology boosts its prestige through its success to penetrate in the social system and leaves people no opportunity for questions but instead it accepts the professionals judgments as they are. Moreover, it uses the principle of normalization in an ambiguous way. On the one hand, the use of normalization is similar to cure but a disability cannot be treated. A child with Autistic Spectrum cannot overcome it and become some day an adolescent or an adult without Autism. On the other hand, medical model tries to use normalization alternatively to equal treatment forgetting that equal: does not always mean same. (Vlachou 1997). Direct effect of the model above is the creation of tensions of considering disabled people as heroes because they manage to live in such an inhospitable society despite their difficulties. This decreases their self-esteem and their self-image and may lead to internalized oppression. Furthermore, another consequence related to this is the establishment of perceptions of each individual about what is normal or abnormal, superior or inferior. This has mainly been affected by socially constructed norms and values dealing with appearance but undoubtedly family plays a major role. Different ideologies, ways of upbringing and environments have a different impact on each person. Within a school environment, there is another significant challenge. Labeling is a situation that both disabled people and the advocators of human rights ask to be demolished. Even if a student is has a formal diagnosis or not, his observable behavior could ridicule him in his peers eyes. As far as teachers are concerned, their attitudes can also be a barrier for managing inclusion. They usually expect less from the pupil; they underestimate his abilities so he has a tendency for underachievement. (Vlachou, 1997). Teachers duty is not only to teach the curriculum. They represent one of the most substantial and crucial factors and have a key role in the school reform and its change into a democratic one. What was described above is what literature characterizes as social barriers for achieving inclusion at schools. In other words, the medical model, its effects of heroic images and labeling, individual perceptions based on predominance of beauty and educators attitudes are the social struggles for inclusive education. Apart from the social barriers there are also some practical aspects which arise in daily practice and obstruct inclusion. Pauline Zelaieta (2004) conducted an investigation and found some difficulties faced by mainstream practitioners on the way to inclusion. Firstly, teachers of general education are afraid of lacking the expertise and confidence to work on issues relating to special educational needs. Secondly, teachers in general schools lack time. They have a strictly structured teaching in order to provide curriculum, so this pressure permits no flexibility of re-instructing the lecture in a more suitable and supporting way, which can appeal to every pupils differences and needs. Other inhibitive factors were found to be the lack of leadership, organizational difficulties and financial constraints (Zelaieta 2004: 43). A review of the relevant literature has revealed that there are many commonalities among the schools regarding their unsuccessful efforts of promoting inclusive education to all their children. Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur (2001) raise the issue of warrior parents through their research. As such, are defined those parents who make any endeavour to incorporate their children in a mainstream school but they run up against the exclusionary attitudes of the staff who see these children as different and as belonging elsewhere (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001: 40). Indicant of the excluding practices is the unwillingness of the school to accept a child with disability and other parents attitudes. The authors mention that the evidence they collected about what happens in New Zealand at both public and private pre-school level is disappointing especially for those parents whose only choice is a rural kindergarten. In some cases the heads of the centre claim that they are not obliged to take these children in the school. In some other cases children with special educational needs were accepted but under certain conditions or provided their parents presence. Furthermore, they describe how the centre can exert control over the childs attendance of the school. The staff will not welcome any child with disability unless he has his personal assistant teacher. In case the teacher aide is unable to go to school, the child has to stay at home. It is also argued the need for resources such as materials, supportive staff and measures for accommodating physical access. That is why many children are excluded either directly (by telling the parents that they cannot accept him in the school e nvironment) or indirectly from the school (by informing the parents that they are positive about him but there is lack of resources). The research criticized as additional exclusionary factors the teachers limited knowledge about disability and other parents not welcoming behavior. So, the importance of parents advocacy is very vividly highlighted in order to ensure that their child will receive the expected education like the rest of the same-aged ones. Very frequently parents need to advocate even for the most obvious services to be offered to their child. But on the other hand parents face the dilemma of how the teachers will treat their child if they will put a lot of pressure on them and be too strict with them. (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001). Moran and Abbott (2002) examined through their investigation how eleven schools develop inclusive practices in Northern Ireland. Their findings acknowledged the invaluable help of teacher assistants but a significant number of them had scrappy education and knowledge about how to work with children with special educational needs. Some other had no qualification. Instead, they had significant experience. As a result they needed to be retrained and this policy was followed by all the schools participated in the research. This happened either in the school context or with a distance learning program. Moving on with the aspects stated as barriers for inclusion through their research, low degree of team work can be mentioned as one. Assistants role was defined mainly by the heads through the things they should not do, such as avoid being overprotective or playing a discreet role during the breaks. The results of the investigation above are in accord with the findings of a research (Gibb et al. 2007) which showed that barrier factors in the inclusion practice seem to be among others the personnels lack of knowledge, childs limited social participation and academic ability as well. Teachers interviewed admitted firstly the short of knowledge about what kind of teaching strategies to implement on children with special educational needs and secondly the fact that they were not skillful enough to exploit their potential. It is reported that it is of great importance their needs to be met. That is why the authors highlighted the essentiality of partnership between mainstream and special schools. Collective work and giving feedback for improvement can diminish the barriers. The curriculum can also be an additional factor, which in practice resists inclusion. It would be a wrong judgment to assume that certain teaching methods are accessible only to children with specific abilities or needs. There are no strategies to use as panacea, but creativity is essentially useful to promote a curriculum that all students will benefit from it. It is crucial not to perceive curriculum as means of promoting knowledge but as a chance to interact with others (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Armh3 (1999) indicates another dimension of curriculum. The one that it portrays what is accepted through social practices and through the philosophy of each module that is taught. The curriculum creates a cultural space which is obvious from the language used to teach a specific subject, from the books, from peoples appearance and this underestimates their identities. The development of creative pedagogies can control what is being taught and destroy the authority of norms and tensions, which some institutions and teachers impose. Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007: 15) define inclusion as the process of increasing the numbers of students attending mainstream schools, who in the past would have been prevented from doing so because of their identified special educational needs. Basic assumption to promote inclusion in regular schools is the buildings and facilities suitability for children with disabilities. Even though unobstructed access to school is a precondition for the child to attend it, it is very frequently too far from reality and this is another barrier for promoting inclusion. First and foremost, it is important the school to be adapted to pupils needs and accommodate its routine and not vice versa. So, a school needs to have an a priori inclusive policy- to put it differently, school has to provide for children with disabilities since its construction. The inclusive philosophy of a school is clearly important to be obvious and substantial not only in the classrooms but in every facility of the school environment (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007) describe some schools efforts while trying to change their image into an inclusive one. Kingsley Primary School was the first case study to be examined. This school had approximately 650 children when visited by the authors above, but provided no full access to the total building for children with motor difficulties as there was no elevator. As far as Amadeus Primary School is regarded it had by 2005 411 pupils. Although it is a really attractive school with light classes and colourful walls, it does not offer access to children with physical disabilities. The third school was a secondary one called Harbour Community. 1,200 children was the total number of pupils in 2004. This school, as happened with the other ones before, could also not assure the accommodation of children with physical or hearing difficulties as there was no provision for them. The small size of the classrooms was a prohibitive factor for wheelchair users and the acoustics of rooms did not help in order to attend a suitable teaching within a welcoming environment. Finally, the last case examined was the Chester Community School, a secondary school as well. It had a population of 1,300 adolescents, of whom 5% were diagnosed as having special educational needs. Comparatively to the rest of the schools inspected, this was the most inclusive one, but although there is a general tendency for promoting inclusion it has restrictions as far as accessibility is concerned. Some parts of the building are open to access but the unaffordable cost for the renovation of the school remains the main barrier. Judging from the data collected from a small sample of buildings, we are able to conclude that four out of four schools are unable to implement inclusion (even up to a point) and this is a frustrating rate. It is easy to consider that no matter how inclusive services a school may offer, the first and foremost that has to provide is unimpeded access. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Inclusion is discussed and suggested in an extended degree through national and international documents, for instance the Salamanca Statement, the Framework for Action on Special Educational Needs, the Index for Inclusion. The obstacles that prevent it from being established in school environments need to be removed. To sum up what was described above, we can categorize the barriers referred in literature into social and practical issues. The medical model is mentioned as social because of its impacts on disabled peoples life. Not only this, but its consequences do also have a negative effect on them, owing to viewing them as heroes or as deviant. Finally, teachers opinion can also be an obstacle to promoting inclusive education. On the other hand, as practical difficulties we can characterize these ones, which rise in the daily routine. More specifically, general teachers perception of lacking knowledge about special education, lack of time to deliver the curriculum as well as the curriculum itself, restricted access to school buildings, limited team work on the part of teachers and unwillingness of some schools to accept disabled children are the practical aspects, which promote exclusionary instead of inclusionary philosophy and practice. Overcoming the barriers Solutions Moves towards inclusion involve abatement of the struggles for inclusion. Overcoming of the social barriers can be fulfilled if changing the societys function by letting disabled peoples voices to be heard. Another direction that can be taken is the one of intervening to the social field of school. A radical change of the general attitude of the school is indispensable and needs to take place. The school is useful to act as a collaborative community, which sets no restrictions to its members to be part of it. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Segregation based on the criterion of ability needs to be eliminated and this can happen through teachers and peers attitudinal change (Pijl, Meijer and Hegarty 1997). Inclusion can be developed within a framework of assistance and support on behalf of teachers. Students can deconstruct the philosophy of exclusion by working into small groups to do in-classroom activities or by peer- tutoring. Strategies like these ones or as circles of friends or buddy-systems (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998) promote an accepting philosophy in the classroom context and help collaborate under the partnership spirit. These actions are not by themselves the direct solution to the problem of inclusion in school level. The dimension of cultural change is the basic one to be reformed. The Index for Inclusion, which is a material based on the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child and UNESCOs 1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, specifies the dimension of creating inclusive cultures. This dimension is about creating a secure, accepting, collaborating, stimulating community in which everyone is valued, as the foundation for the highest achievements of all students. It is concerned with developing inclusive values, shared between all staff, students, governors and parents/ carers that are conveyed to all new members of the school (Booth et al. 2000: 45). As a result, new cultures affect society in general and school community in particular. In that way teachers are willing to design new teaching approaches so as to respect every pupils needs, differences and abilities and st udents are willing to respond to that pedagogy. This is the first step to move on providing solutions for the practical barriers which were analyzed before. Taking the attitudinal and cultural change for granted, this can positively affect alternative ways for the curriculum delivery. For instance, students arrangement into groups, use of innovative materials, brand-new lesson format and interesting tasks differentiated by activities can create an active learning environment. The achievement of goals can happen through supportive relationships and mixed groups in which ones abilities will accommodate others needs. Focus on the whole classroom instead of individuals separately can promote the delivery of an inclusive curriculum (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). If educators plan their teaching, if they offer group activities employing curricular differentiation and if there is mutual respect inclusion can undoubtedly be promoted. (Gibb et al.2007). Producing inclusive policies is a second dimension mentioned in the Index for Inclusion, which is about securing inclusion at the heart of school development, permeating all policies, so that they increase the learning and participation of all students. All forms of support are brought together within a single framework and are viewed from the perspective of students and their development rather than school or local education authority administrative structures (Booth et al. 2000: 45). A school for all is the one, which can firstly offer physical access to its pupils. Then, it supports them not only by making the use of buildings comfortable but also by offering psychological support. For instance, by aiding new students to adapt to the new environment or by representing their educational needs and create small peer-groups during teaching so that everyone can benefit from it. Inclusive policy supports diversity in multiple ways. That can happen by supporting activities for students w ith special needs or for those whose native language is not the same as the rest of the pupils. (Booth et al.2000). After examining the theoretical part of what is inclusive policy, it is essential to discuss how a sample of schools implements those policies. Kingsley Primary School had a high level (60%) of children for whom English was an additional language and about 15% of pupils with special needs. The school had a clearly admission policy and tried to respond to pupils needs. For that reason, the school had some facilities corrected and removed some of the barriers regarding participation and access. Implementing inclusive policy according to the Index, urged Kingsley School to support all children needed aid in learning. To do it successfully, they arranged some teaching groups. Gifted children, pupils with discipline problems or with problems on using the local language attended some lessons in separate classrooms and finally they had the ability to attend the curriculum in their class with their peers. (Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007). Although the policy of Amadeus Primary School regarding accessibility is not that inclusive, the school provides low dado rails to support children with visual impairments and a hearing induction loop system (Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007 :72). It embraces all new children and a peer mentor is responsible for each one of them especially for the first-day-difficulties. As far as children identified as having learning difficulties are concerned, their needs are met by planning their homework. The last dimension of inclusion explored by the Index is about developing inclusive practices and is defined as reflecting the inclusive cultures and policies of the school. It is concerned with ensuring that classroom and extra-curricular activities encourage the participation of all students and draw on their knowledge and experience outside school. Teaching and support are integrated together in the orchestration of learning and the overcoming of barriers to learning and participation. Staff mobilizes resources within the school and local communities to sustain active learning for all (Booth et al.2000: 45). So, barriers discussed above such as lack of time or lack of leadership and tem work can be removed. The Index for Inclusion suggests the creation of a coordinating group, the head of which will raise staffs knowledge about its purposes. Acting not as an expert but as a consultant s/he can collect information about staffs and parents opinion on what are the real priorities and aspects for change. After the collection of evidence, further discussion follows on arranging a development plan, which will be monitored via meetings, councils, debates. (Booth et al.2000). After that, everyones duties will be reassigned. The teacher will know what s/he has to do, the teacher assistant will have a clearer idea about his/ her role and his/her performance within the classroom, the SENCO, the planning team, the senior staff and the head teacher will be able to work in a new, much more organized and closely monitored context. In that way, lack of leadership and organization and lack of time stop acting restrictively against inclusion. Collaborative work is highly promoted in the framework of inclusive culture. Moving towards inclusive practice, team work acts as a basic assumption, not only among staff members but also among them and the parents/ carers. Good interaction of those involving in inclusion and respect to each others knowledge and experiences are the keys for their efficient partnership (Armh3 and Moore 2004). Lack of specialist knowledge was referred to a great extent as a prohibitive factor for inclusion. Liaison of special and general schools seems to be really effective. The first ones can train the general educators and provide them suitable material for using while teaching children with SEN. They can also equip them with strategies and ideas for adapting the curriculum to their diversities and the teaching time can be better administered (Cheminais 2003). Collaborative engagement, value others opinions, active listening and working with a plan in a monitored context, as proposed by the Index, can be the right solutions to the barriers for inclusion. In a school that finally decides to implement and promote inclusive practices there is an atmosphere of collaboration, students learn from each other, children support one another regardless of the group activities and they have attitudes of respect and acceptance. Children use their resources as well as staffs expertise to reinforce inclusion. (Booth et al.2000; Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007). After having discussed the three dimensions for achieving inclusion (inclusive cultures, policies and practices), it is difficult to say which comes first. None of these separately can provide that high results as when co-existing and acting as one. To p

The life of Richard :: essays research papers

born Leipzig, 22 May 1813; died Venice, 13 February 1883). He was the son either of the police actuary Friedrich Wagner, who died soon after his birth, or of his mother's friend the painter, actor and poet Ludwig Geyer, whom she married in August 1814. He went to school in Dresden and then Leipzig; at 15 he wrote a play, at 16 his first compositions. In 1831 he went to Leipzig University, also studying music with the Thomaskantor, C.T. Weinlig; a symphony was written and successfully performed in 1832. In 1833 he became chorus master at the Wà ¼rzburg theatre and wrote the text and music of his first opera, Die Feen; this remained unheard, but his next, Das Liebesverbot, written in 1833, was staged in 1836. By then he had made his dà ©but as an opera conductor with a small company which however went bankrupt soon after performing his opera. He married the singer Minna Planer in 1836 and went with her to Kà ¶nigsberg where he became musical director at the theatre, but he soon left and took a similar post in Riga where he began his next op era, Rienzi, and did much conducting, especially of Beethoven. In 1839 they slipped away from creditors in Riga, by ship to London and then to Paris, where he was befriended by Meyerbeer and did hack-work for publishers and theatres. He also worked on the text and music of an opera on the 'Flying Dutchman' legend; but in 1842 Rienzi, a large-scale opera with a political theme set in imperial Rome, was accepted for Dresden and Wagner went there for its highly successful premiere. Its theme reflects something of Wagner's own politics (he was involved in the semi-revolutionary, intellectual 'Young Germany' movement). Die fliegende Hollà ¤nder ('The Flying Dutchman'), given the next year, was less well received, though a much tauter musical drama, beginning to move away from the 'number opera' tradition and strong in its evocation of atmosphere, especially the supernatural and the raging seas (inspired by the stormy trip from Riga). Wagner was now appointed joint Kapellmeister at the Dresden court. The theme of redemption through a woman's love, in the Dutchman, recurs in Wagner's operas (and perhaps his life). In 1845 Tannhà ¤user was completed and performed and Lohengrin begun. In both Wagner moves towards a more continuous texture with semi-melodic narrative and a supporting orchestral fabric helping convey its sense.

John Gotti Received More Publicity Any Crime Figure

Differential Association Theory Differential association theory was Sutherland's major sociological contribution to criminology; similar in importance to strain theory and social control theory. These theories all explain deviance in terms of the individual's social relationships. Sutherland's theory departs from the pathological perspective and biological perspective by attributing the cause of crime to the social context of individuals. â€Å"He rejected biological determinism and the extreme individualism of psychiatry, as well as economic explanations of crime.His search for an alternative understanding of crime led to the development of differential association theory. In contrast to both classical and biological theories, differential association theory poses no obvious threats to the humane treatment of those identified as criminals. â€Å"(Gaylord, 1988:1) The principle of differential association asserts that a person becomes delinquent because of an â€Å"excess† o f definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.In other word, criminal behavior emerges when one is exposed to more social message favoring conduct than prosocial messages (Sutherland, 1947). Sutherland argued that the concept of differential association and differential social organization could be applied to the individual level and to aggregation (or group) level respectively. While differential association theory explains why any individual gravitates toward criminal behavior, differential social organization explains why crime rates of different social entities different from each other's.The first explicit statement of the theory of differential association appears in the 1939 edition of Principles of Criminology and in the fourth edition of it, he presented his final theory. His theory has 9 basic postulates. 1. Criminal behavior is learned. This means that criminal behavior is not inherited, as such; also the person who is not al ready trained in crime does not invent criminal behavior. 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. This communication is verbal in many cases but includes gestures. 3.The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. Negatively, this means the impersonal communication, such as movies or newspaper play a relatively unimportant part in committing criminal behavior. 4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very simple; (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5. The specific direction of the motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.This different context of situation usually is found in US where culture conflict in relation to the legal code exists. 6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions fa vorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law. This is the principle of differential association. When people become criminal, they do so not only because of contacts with criminal patterns but also because of isolation from anticriminal patterns. Negatively, this means that association which are neutral so far as crime is concerned have little or no effect on the genesis of criminal behavior. . Differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. Priority seems to be important principally through its selective influence and intensity has to do with such things as the prestige of the source of a criminal or anticriminal pattern and with emotional reactions related to the association. These modalities would be rated in quantitative form and mathematical ratio but development of formula in this sense has not been developed and would be very difficult. 8.The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal a nd anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. Negatively, this means that the learning of criminal behavior is not restricted to the process of imitation. A person who is seduced, for instance, learns criminal behavior by association, but this would not be ordinarily described as imitation. 9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.Thieves generally steal in order to secure money, but likewise honest laborers work in order to money. The attempts to explain criminal behavior by general drives and values such as the money motive have been, and must completely to be, futile, since they explain lawful behavior as completely as they explain criminal behavior. They are similar to respiration, which is necessary for any behavior, but which does not differentiate criminal from noncri minal behavior. (Sutherland, 1974: 75-76)In summary, he believed that an individual’s associations are determined in a general context of social organization (for instance, family income as a factor of determining residence of family and in many cases, delinquency rate is largely related to the rental value of houses) and thus differential group organization as an explanation of various crime rates is consistent with the differential association theory. (Sutherland, 1974: 77) Much of Sutherland’s theory relied upon the work of Chicago school theorists, Shaw and McKay (1931,1969).According to Shaw and McKay, they found that â€Å"delinquency rates increased as one moved away from the center of the city, and ecological rates of delinquency remained stable over generations despite a complete turnover of ethnic composition and social disorganization explained the high rates of delinquency in the inner-city. † (Matsueda: 1988: 280) As a matter of fact, this statement requires qualification because once you pass through the zone in transition, delinquency rates drop as you move out towards the suburbs.Criticism and Contemporary Views Many criticized Sutherland's differential association theory; supporters argued that criticism often resulted from misinterpretation of Sutherland's theory. Donald R. Cressey argued persuasively that many of the critiques were simply â€Å"literary errors† or misinterpretation on the part of the critics. For example, the theory was judged by critics to be invalid because not everyone who had come into contact with criminals became criminal as a result.This misinterprets the theory's proposition that criminal behavior is learned through differential association (relative exposure to criminal and noncriminal patterns) not simply through any contact with persons who have violated the law. (Akers: 1996:229) However, Cressey also pointed out two major weaknesses of Sutherland's theory. the first problem was that t he concept of â€Å"definitions† in the theory was not precisely defined, and the statement did not give good guidance on how to operationalize the ratio or â€Å"excess of definitions† favorable to criminal behavior over definitions unfavorable to criminal behavior.The second real problem was that it left the learning process unspecified. There is virtually no clue in Sutherland's theory as to what in particular would be included in â€Å"all the mechanisms that are involved in any of other learning (Akers: 1996:229-230) Another important criticism argued that Sutherland's theory is a â€Å"cultural deviance† theory as a way of showing that it made wrong presumptions about human behavior and the role of culture in deviant behavior. Matsueda (1988) believed it â€Å"reduces his (Sutherland’s) theory to a caricature† and Bernard objected to the way in which the cultural deviance label has been applied to the original differential association and so cial learning revision†(Bernard and Snipes, 1995: Vold and Bernard, 1986: 227-229) But Akers denies this criticism as another misinterpretation of Sutherland's theory: According to this critique, differential association/social learning theory rests on the assumption that socialization is completely successful and that cultural variability is unlimited, cannot explain individual differences in deviance within the same group and applies only to group differences, has no way of explaining violation of norms to which the individual subscribes, and proposes culture as the single cause of crime. I conclude that the usual attribution of cultural deviance assumptions and explanation to differential association is based on misinterpretations. (Akers: 1996:229) Merton TheoryLike many sociological theories of crime, Robert Merton’s strain/anomie theory has advanced following the work of Emile Durkheim. In Merton’s theory anomie is very similar to the very meaning of the wo rd strain, as he proposed anomie to be a situation in which societies inadvertently bring to bear pressure, or strain, on individuals that can lead to rule-breaking behavior. This pressure, or strain if you will, is caused by the discrepancy between culturally defined goals and the institutionalized means available to achieve these goals. To illustrate this Merton argues that the dominant cultural goal in the U. S is the acquisition of wealth, as a message was depicted that happiness often equated with material success which is often associated with wealth.The socially accepted institutionalized manner of achieving these material goals was believed to be hard work and education, meaning it is widely believed that people who apply themselves to study and work will succeed financially and that those who do not succeed are labeled as either lazy or defective. According to Merton, the problem with this type of society is that the legitimate means for achieving material success are not u niformly distributed. In other words, those from wealthier backgrounds have considerably more access to legitimate means than do those who are economically disadvantaged. As a consequence, anomie, or strain, is generated and produces certain ‘modes of adaptation’, or (simply put) coping strategies, that the disadvantaged use to deal with the pressures that are brought to bear on them. Merton identifies five modes of adaptation: conformity, innovation, retreatism, ritualism, and rebellion.According to Merton, the innovator is the most likely to engage in criminal behavior, as the innovator accepts the socially recognized goals of society, but reject the legitimate means to achieve these goals. Consequently, the innovator uses proceeds from crimes such as fraud, theft, and illegal drug dealing to access culturally defined goals. Critique of Strain/Anomie theory Although Merton’s Strain theory continues to play a role in the sociological theorization of crime today, there are limitations to this theory of crime that have been identified. The first critique of this theory, put forth by Albert Cohen, addressed the fact that there is an ample amount of crime/delinquent behavior that is â€Å"non-utilitarian, malicious, and negativistic† (O’Grady, 2011), which highlights that not all crimes are explicable using Merton’s theory.Although Merton could explain crimes such as fraud and theft on the basis of innovation, he is unable to explain youth crimes that are often engaged in for social status rather than material acquisition. Furthermore, Strain/Anomie theory fails to adequately address issues such as race and gender. Additionally, Strain/Anomie theory is unable to explain the phenomena of white collar crime. [edit] Robert DubinRobert Dubin (1959) viewed deviance as a function of society, disputing the assumption that the deviant adaptations to situations of anomie are necessarily harmful to society. For example, an individua l in the ritualistic adaptation is still playing by the rules and taking part in society. The only deviance lies in abandoning one or more of its culturally prescribed goals.Dubin argued that Merton's focus on the relationship between society’s emphasized goals, and institutionalized prescribed means was inadequate. Dubin felt that a further distinction should be made between cultural goals, institutional means and institutional norms because individuals perceive norms subjectively, interpreting them and acting upon them differently. The personal educational experiences, values, and attitudes may predispose an individual to internalize a norm one way. Another individual with different experiences may legitimately internalize the same norm differently. Both may be acting rationally in their own terms, but the resulting behaviour is different.Dubin also extended Merton’s typology to fourteen, with particular interest in Innovation and Ritualism. Merton proposed that the innovative response to strain was accepting the goal, but rejecting the institutionally prescribed means of achieving the goal. The implication seemed to be that that not only did the individual reject the means, he must actively innovate illegitimate means as a substitute which would not always be true. Dubin also thought that a distinction should be made between the actual behaviour of the actor and the values that drove the behaviour. Instead of Innovation, Dubin proposed Behavioural Innovation and Value Innovation.Similarly, in Ritualism, he proposed Behavioural Ritualism and Value Ritualism (Dubin, 1959: 147-149). Merton (1959: 177-189) commented on Dubin’s revisions, claiming that although Dubin did make valid contributions, they took the focus off deviancy. [edit] Robert AgnewIn 1992, Robert Agnew asserted that strain theory could be central in explaining crime and deviance, but that it needed revision so that it was not tied to social class or cultural variables, but re-focused on norms. To this end, Agnew proposed a general strain theory that is neither structural nor interpersonal but rather individual and emotional, paying especial attention to an individual's immediate social environment.He argued that an individual's actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals, actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and actual or anticipated presentation of negative stimuli all result in strain. Anger and frustration confirm negative relationships. The resulting behavior patterns will often be characterized by more than their share of unilateral action because an individual will have a natural desire to avoid unpleasant rejections, and these unilateral actions (especially when antisocial) will further contribute to an individual's alienation from society. If particular rejections are generalized into feelings that the environment is unsupportive, more strongly negative emotions may motivate the individual to engage in crime.This is most likely to be true for younger individuals, and Agnew suggested that research focus on the magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering of such strain-related events to determine whether a person copes with strain in a criminal or conforming manner. Temperament, intelligence, interpersonal skills, self-efficacy, the presence of conventional social support, and the absence of association with antisocial (e. g. , criminally inclined) age and status peers are chief among the factors Agnew identified as beneficial. [edit] Akers' operationalization of Agnew's theory: Sources of strainAkers (2000: 159) has operationalized Agnew's version of the Strain Theory, as follows: Failure to achieve positively valued goals: he gap between expectations and actual achievements will derive from short- and long-term personal goals, and some of those goals will never be realized because of unavoidable circumstances including both inherent weaknesses and opportunities blocked by othe rs; and the difference between the view of what a person believes the outcome should be and what actually results increases personal disappointment. Frustration is not necessarily due to any outside interference with valued goals, but a direct effect on anger, and has indirect effects on serious crime and aggression. Agnew and White (1992) have produced empirical evidence suggesting that general strain theory was positively able to relate delinquents and drug users, and that the strongest effect on the delinquents studied was the delinquency of their peers.They were interested in drug use because it did not appear to represent an attempt to direct anger or escape pain, but â€Å"is used primarily to manage the negative affect caused by strain. † Up to this point, strain theory had been concerned with types of strain rather than sources of strain whereas the stress of events can be shown to interfere with the achievement of natural expectations or just and fair outcomes. These may be significant events or minor â€Å"hassles† that accumulate and demoralize over time. Frustration leads to dissatisfaction, resentment, and anger — all the emotions customarily associated with strain in criminology. It is natural for individuals to feel distress when they are denied just rewards for their efforts when compared to the efforts and rewards given to similar others for similar outcomes.Agnew (1992) treats anger as the most critical emotion since it is almost always directed outwards and is often related to breakdowns in relationships. Research shows that the stress/crime relationship appears to hold regardless of guilt feelings, age, and capacity to cope when events occur simultaneously or in close succession. [edit] Zhang JieThe strain theory of suicide postulates that suicide is usually preceded by psychological strains. A psychological strain is formed by at least two stresses or pressures, pushing the individual to different directions. A strain can be a consequence of any of the four conflicts: differential values, discrepancy between aspiration and reality, relative deprivation, and lack of coping skills for a crisis.Psychological strains in the form of all the four sources have been tested and supported with a sample of suicide notes in the United States and in rural China through psychological autopsy studies. The strain theory of suicide forms a challenge to the psychiatric model popular among the suicidologists in the world. The strain theory of suicide is based on the theoretical frameworks established by previous sociologists, e. g. Durkheim (1951), Merton (1957), and Agnew (2006), and preliminary tests have been accomplished with some American (Zhang and Lester 2008) and Chinese data (Zhang 2010; Zhang, Dong, Delprino, and Zhou 2009; Zhang, Wieczorek, Conwell, and Tu 2011).There could be four types of strain that precede a suicide, and each can be derived from specific sources. A source of strain must consist of tw o, and at least two, conflicting social facts. If the two social facts are non-contradictory, there would be no strain. Strain Source 1: Differential Values When two conflicting social values or beliefs are competing in an individual’s daily life, the person experiences value strain. The two conflicting social facts are competing personal beliefs internalized in the person’s value system. A cult member may experience strain if the mainstream culture and the cult religion are both considered important in the cult member’s daily life.Other examples include the second generation of immigrants in the United States who have to abide by the ethnic culture rules enforced in the family while simultaneously adapting to the American culture with peers and school. In China, rural young women appreciate gender egalitarianism advocated by the communist government, but at the same time, they are trapped in cultural sexual discrimination as traditionally cultivated by Confucia nism. Another example that might be found in developing countries is the differential values of traditional collectivism and modern individualism. When the two conflicting values are taken as equally important in a person’s daily life, the person experiences great strain. When one value is more important than the other, there is then little or no strain. Strain Source 2: Reality vs. AspirationIf there is a discrepancy between an individual’s aspiration or a high goal and the reality the person has to live with, the person experiences aspiration strain. The two conflicting social facts are one’s splendid ideal or goal and the reality that may prevent one from achieving it. An individual living in the United States expects to be very rich or at least moderately successful as other Americans do, but in reality the means to achieve the goal is not equally available to the person because of his/her social status or any other reasons. Aspirations or goals can be a col lege a person aims to get in, an ideal girl a boy wants to marry, and a political cause a person strives for, etc. If the reality is far from the aspiration, the person experiences strain. Another example might be from rural China.A young woman aspiring to equal opportunity and equal treatment may have to live within the traditional and Confucian reality, exemplified by her family and village, which interferes with that goal. The larger the discrepancy between aspiration and reality, the greater the strain will be. Strain Source 3: Relative Deprivation In the situation where an extremely economically poor individual realizes some other people of the same or similar background are leading a much better life, the person experiences deprivation strain. The two conflicting social facts are one’s own miserable life and the perceived richness of comparative others. A person living in absolute poverty, where there is no comparison with others, does not necessarily feel bad, miserabl e, or deprived.On the other hand, if the same poor person understands that other people like him/her live a better life, he or she may feel deprived because of these circumstances. In an economically polarized society where the rich and poor live geographically close to each other, people are more likely to feel this discrepancy. In today’s rural China, television, newspaper, magazines, and radio have brought home to rural youths how relatively affluent urban life is. Additionally, those young people who went to work in the cities (dagong) and returned to the village during holidays with luxury materials and exciting stories make the relative deprivation even more realistically perceived. Increased perception of deprivation indicates relatively greater strain for individuals. Strain Source 4: Deficient CopingFacing a life crisis, some individuals are not able to cope with it, and then they experience coping strain. The two conflicting social facts are life crisis and the appr opriate coping capacity. All people who have experienced crises do not experience strain. A crisis may be a pressure or stress in daily life, and those individuals who are not able to cope with the crisis have strain. Such crises as loss of money, loss of status, loss of face, divorce, death of a loved one, etc. may lead to serious strain in the person who does not know how to cope with these negative life events. A high school boy who is constantly bullied and ridiculed by peers may experience great strain if he does not know how to deal with the situation.Likewise, a Chinese rural young woman who is frequently wronged by her mother-in-law may have strain if she is not psychologically ready to cope with a different situation by seeking support from other family members and the village. The less capable the coping skills, the stronger the strain when a crisis takes place. [edit] ReferencesO'Grady W. (2011). â€Å"Crime in Canadian Context. † Strain/anomie theory 92-94 Agnew, R. (1992). â€Å"Foundation for a General Strain Theory. † Criminology 30(1), 47-87 Agnew, R. & White, H. (1992). â€Å"An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory. † Criminology 30(4): 475-99. Agnew, R. (1997). â€Å"The Nature and Determinants of Strain: Another Look at Durkheim and Merton. † Pp. 7-51 in The Future of Anomie Theory, edited by R. Agnew and N. Passas. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Agnew, R. (2009). â€Å"Revitalizing Merton: General Strain Theory. † Advances in Criminological Theory: The Origins of American Criminology, Volume 16, edited by F. T. Cullen, F. Adler, C. L. Johnson, and A. J. Meyer. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Akers, R. (2000). Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application. Los Angeles: Roxbury. Cloward, R. (1959). â€Å"Illegitimate Means, Anomie and Deviant Behavior. † American Sociological Review 24(2): 164- 76. Cloward, R. & Ohlin, L. (1960). Delinquency and Opportunity. NY: Free Pr ess. Cohen, A. (1955). Delinquent Boys.NY: Free Press. Cohen, A. (1965). â€Å"The Sociology of the Deviant Act: Anomie Theory and Beyond. † American Sociological Review 30: 5-14. Cohen, A. (1977). â€Å"The Concept of Criminal Organization. † British Journal of Criminology 17: 97-111. Dubin, R. (1959) â€Å"Deviant Behavior and Social Structure: Continuities in Social Theory. † American Sociological Review 24:147-163. Durkheim, E. (1897/1997). Suicide. NY: Free Press. Featherstone, R. & Deflem, M. (2003). â€Å"Anomie and Strain: Context and Consequences of Merton's Two Theories. † Sociological Inquiry 73(4):471-489. Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.Marwah, Sanjay, and Mathieu Deflem. 2006. †Revisiting Merton: Continuities in the Theory of Anomie-and-Opportunity-Structures. † Pp. 57-76 in Sociological Theory and Criminological Research: Views from Europe and the United States, ed. M. Deflem. Amsterdam: Elsevier/JAI Press. Messner, S ; Rosenfeld, R. (1994). Crime and the American Dream. Belmont: Wadsworth. Polk, K. (1969). â€Å"Class, Strain and Rebellion Among Adolescents. † Social Problems 17: 214-24. Polk, K. , ; Schafer, W. (eds. ). (1972). Schools and Delinquency. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Agnew, Robert. 2006. â€Å"General Strain Theory: Current Status and Directions for Further Research. † Pp. 01-123 in Taking Stock: The Status of Criminological Theory-Advances in Criminological Theory, edited by F. T. Cullen, J. P. Wright, and K. Blevins. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Durkheim, Emile. 1951. Suicide: A Study in Sociology. New York: Free Press (Original work published in 1897). IOM, (Institute of Medicine). 2002. Reducing suicide: An American imperative. Washington, D. C. : National Academy Press. Mann, J. J. , C. Waternaux, G. L. Haas, and K. M. Malone. 1999. â€Å"Toward a clinical model of suicidal behavior in psychiatric patients. à ¢â‚¬  American Journal of Psychiatry 156:181-189. Merton, R. K. 1957. Social Theory and Social Structure, rev. ed. New York: Free Press. NIMH. 2003.Research on Reduction and Prevention of Suicidality: National Institute of Mental Health. Phillips, Michael R, Gonghuan Yang, Yanping Zhang, L. Wang, H. Ji, and M. Zhou. 2002. â€Å"Risk factors for suicide in China: a national case-control psychological autopsy study. † The Lancet 360:1728-1736. Spitzer, R. L. , J. B. W. Williams, M. Gibbon, and A. B. First. 1988. Instruction Manual for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID, 6/1/88 Revision). New York: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute. Zhang, Jie. 2010. â€Å"Marriage and Suicide among Chinese Rural Young Women. † Social Forces 89:311-326. Zhang, Jie, Nini Dong, Robert Delprino, and Li Zhou. 2009. Psychological Strains Found From In-Depth Interviews With 105 Chinese Rural Youth Suicides. † Archives of Suicide Resea rch 13:185 – 194. Zhang, Jie and Shenghua Jin. 1998. â€Å"Interpersonal relations and suicide ideation in China. † Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 124:79-94. Zhang, Jie and David Lester. 2008. â€Å"Psychological Tensions Found in Suicide Notes: A Test for the Strain Theory of Suicide. † Archives of Suicide Research 12:67-73. Zhang, Jie, William F. Wieczorek, Yeates Conwell, and Xin Ming Tu. 2011. â€Å"Psychological strains and youth suicide in rural China. † Social Science & Medicine 72:2003-2010. Zhang, Jie. 2000. â€Å"Gender differences in athletic performance and their